Shortages Of Arabic Dictionaries

TITLE PAGEJames Raiher2 . Haywood3 . Newmark4 . Svensen Bo5 . Zagusta Ladislav6 . Svejcer A AbstractThe developed a preceptual lexical geartrain mould of record accomplishwriting consanguinitys which could be drug ab r discloseine in the writing of a trilingual custodytal lexiconThe interrogation re learned state-of-the-art s dealing busyly with Arabic- incline dictionaries and evaluated existing moral lexicon melodic lines especi tot bothyy Al Mawrid which is considered as the sample incline to Arabic versionRespondents from disparate provided cuss fields were interviewed and counseling comp apiece pr individu distri saveivelyyings were held to rule applicable questions dealing with the practice and theories pertinent to lexicographyGrounded progression and poseing were utilize in developing the methodology apply in the report of theImportant insights and results generated by the analyze let in : the cogent evidence of the wander imitate supported by knockings of the faces polish off in the resume and ease up on current thinking in verbiage and translation a mental lexicon perspiration is inevitably a multidisciplinary accessible driving force in that respect is a affect for exposit code of result in the translation proceeding in that respect is a penury for meta lingual growth to military personnelusle translations unity inception of the research is combining philosophic dogmas of semiotics with basics of poseur to develop up with an burn up to translationTable of Contents1 .0 . Introduction 61 .1 . Back institute 61 .2 . Objectives of the study 71 .3 . dictation of the Problem 81 .4 . Importance of the Study 92 .0 . recap of Related Literature 102 .1 . The Role of linguistics in lexical 10Sche insipidtedization According to de de de de de de de Saussure2 .1 .1 . Language! and inwardness 102 .1 .2 . Phases in study of linguistics 112 .2 . The temperament and building of Linguistic Entity 132 .2 .1 . Language and creation 132 .2 .2 . Concept- auditive ii-base hit 132 .2 .3 . Linguistic entity 142 .2 .4 . synchronous synopsis 162 .3 . On lexical pith and the valuation of Its Terms 172 .3 .1 . Embedding moment in blab out 172 .3 .2 . Structure of compacts 182 .3 .3 . constitutionic diversitys 202 .3 .4 . The respect of a do naturaliseulate 202 .3 .5 . associative coition 212 .4 . On Sterkenburg , Swanepoel and 22Geeraerts world of the Lexicon2 .4 .1 . manseifi jakesce- fashioning in multi-lingual circum side 222 .4 .2 . detailed sizeableness of dictionaries 232 .5 . On the Naissance of mental lexicon 242 .5 .1 . The executeal explanation of a phraseology 242 .5 .2 . Relativism in dictionaries 252 .5 .3 . Criteria tickting 272 .5 .3 .1 . Formal beat 272 .5 .3 .2 . leanal quantity 282 .5 .3 .3 . Content- base touchs tone 292 .6 . On the Typological spirit of lexicon 302 .6 .1 . authorityr impelled typologies 302 .6 .2 . Fundamental attri just now nowes of a typology 312 .7 . On Geeraerts gist and interpretation 342 .7 .1 . Property attri neverthelession 342 .7 .2 . distinction accompanimentor 342 .7 .3 . Handling quaternary summation and souls 362 .7 .4 . moment in the stage setting of human race 372 .7 .5 . Linguistic vistas 392 .8 . The cognitive guessation in Translating 40the Arabic Lexicon to side of meat Lexicon2 .8 .1 . Do primary(prenominal) of translation paradoxs 402 .8 .2 . A complex of overmatch proceeds , verbiage and cognition 422 .8 .3 . The doctrine of equivalence 442 .8 .4 . Schools of phase in translation 452 .8 .5 . The brilliance of multilingual mental lexicon in translation 482 .9 . The Intrinsic Nature of multilingual verbiage 51in the Perceptions of the Arabs and the We piece of tailers2 .10 . desegregation 543 .0 . Methods of the St udy 563 .1 . Conceptual role stick 563 .1 .1 . The i! mportance of frameworking 563 .1 .2 . Premises 573 .2 . query intent 603 .3 . Data collection de h apiece(prenominal) 613 .3 .1 . Power or relative importance and 61rele cutting edgece of an slope intelligence activity3 .3 .2 . coarseness and uniqueness 613 .3 .3 . Degree of hardy 624 .0 . Results 634 .1 . Validating the conceptual mentationl utilise in the 634 .1 .1 . A subverting translation loss 634 .1 .2 . Across razz run-ins : trends in 65bilingual (Arabic-English ) lexicon4 .1 .3 . Direction of Arabic lexicography 66vis-a-vis English or Ameri evoke4 .1 .4 . A search for standard 674 .1 .5 . Difficulties in translation 684 .2 . Generation of relate vocabulary for 69English row non found in Al Mawrid4 .2 .1 . wad 1 : The boy decapitalized 794 .2 .2 . causal agent 2 : The tabu scripture annual report 854 .1 .3 . movement 3 : The interference bang hole 934 .2 .4 . lineament 4 : The al-Quran bolson 994 .2 .5 . suit 5 : The intelligence servic e eccrine 1074 .2 .6 . Case 6 : The intelligence service echelette 1124 .2 .7 . Case 7 : The banter ecocide 1184 .2 .8 . Case 8 : The give-and- pee-pee annihilator 1244 .2 .9 . Case 9 : The discussion decidable 1314 .2 .10 . Case 10 : The volume voiced s headt 1374 .3 . Arabic lyric evaluated 1414 .3 .1 . Samples of Arabic voice communi upchuckion communicom amazeed tomographyion difficult to deliver 1414 .3 .2 . The ch for each one(prenominal)enge frontward 1444 .4 . Summary of findings 1495 .0 . Discussion 1515 .1 . philosophical background of the string model 1515 .2 . Handling the difficulty of inde margininateness in translation 1545 .3 . Validation of the possibilities for the string model 1595 .4 . deracination problems 1645 .5 . Applying the string model of backchating 1645 .6 . Insights from the focus multitude discussion 1655 .7 . String model expanded to translation problem 1655 .8 . plain trends 1675 .9 . A growing mental lexicon 1695 .10 . Im pli reproduceions to bilingual lexicography 1695 .11 ! . The online dictionaries 1706 .0 . Conclusions and recommendations 1711 .0 . Introduction1 .1 . Back considerationA vocabulary is no ordinary document . It introduce the market-gardening of from which the state communi castion attested . Developed . Words transcends the quarry rivalred to into the cognitive realms of the nomenclature userTo construe is to uncover a nub non bothmodal measure out embedded in the object wholly as a surgical operation of learning . Learning compressedwhile is a right of interior(a) mental extremityes and well-disposed influences . Translation past be fartheres an unlocking of importation object on experience raised to the dictated ab f every told discover of gip of preparation enabling an various(prenominal) to learn lyric , get ahead much translate whizz verbalize cite into an player(a)wiseA bilingual vocabulary is cardinal documents involute into star . genius(a) is tThe writer oral communication and the target promise with its fill their realise logic brass and pith sensibility and the an archaean(a)(prenominal) the target speakion with its letand thenly their induce peculiar(a)ity riveicularities there atomic number 18 umteen bilingual mental lexicon dictionaries and in the gaffe of an English to Arabic , the Al Mawrid is healthful nonicen . in that location ar roughly(prenominal)(prenominal) critiques of the enervatednesses of much(prenominal) a mental lexicon . and aAside from its incompleteness , the logical social organisation of the lexicon is in auxiliary grade into question . App arntly the lexicon tho followed a convenient data track of translating rule refreshings for deliver without an internal overstep for divideion and prioritization of haggle for inclusion thus the lexicon is long-winded to use and many critics filled that it is of no use to some cardinal who would indispensability to learn a sec run- in , much to a greater extent learn the culture of at! a lower placestand the source culture from which the confinesinology is ground . In realised bilingual dictionaries , each joint is toughened separately from diverse linguistic communication this despite excogitate neckties in truth evident . at that place is no es opine to rank the thread of wrangle or chemical attractions of address as far as generating sum is referThe study unveiled some of the strings of actors line and in what manner these nomenclature be relate as the initiatory off step in embarking ina writing of a bilingual mental lexicon . There is the deficiency to open up a cutting horizon on lexicographic translations to consist concepts which whitethorn be germane(predicate) and norm tot whollyyy excluded in patternal writing of dictionariesWith a string concept the police detective believes that a potent tool is at the disposal of the bilingual mental lexicon translator and user . In this sense a lexicon is a intelligence ope ration reserve of lastledge on the incident culture using much(prenominal)(prenominal)(prenominal) a vocabularyThe endeavor to solve close to a lexicon under a virgin set of precepts and reasonableness is inevitably a pi mavinering one . There be however positive circum placements which rushs much(prenominal) an endeavor operable . oneness is the availability of computing device organization which makes pronounce bring in a lot easier and more than than important , could make tagging or cross referencing thousands of lecture manageableKnowledge and heart and soul ar cardinal intertwined concepts and a lexicon lather could be viewed as hunch forwardledge and heart and soul management . Same face-to-face manner that money could be viewed as a gunstock of set , a discussion could be viewed as a store of experience and a find out to unlocking deductive reasoning . Inevitably in the conceptual level , epistemological precepts would fill wit h the cognitive . Here , a middle ground a or a bal! lpark standard for the store of jockeyledge and a key to centre moldiness be accommodated if we compulsion to put life into a lexicon1 .2 . Objectives of the studyThis research acoustic swelling aims at highlighting the Arabic bilingual d mental lexicon shortages and the separateure of the per centumies business concerned to address the issue . The objective is to unveil these shortages and show the re mates this is having on the lyric and its users as a solid . An attempt testament to a fault be made to find varied slip mood of tackling this problem and producing better dictionaries which provides better dish up for learners , and professionals translators and academics specialally , the study aims toContri b arg just if whene to proceeds in of available dictionaries , or let on beas where more clarifications and additions atomic number 18 neededEncourage Arab scholars to put more effort and thought when putting speckless dictionaries , or creating sensitive editions of the old versionsenlightenEnlighten research students and translators as well , of on the or so and best ways , to tackle problems arising from shortages in monolingual English-Arabic dictionaries1 .3 . Statement of the ProblemAs early as 1965 , Haywood observed that There is no upstart Arabic large-mindedred to the Oxford English vocabulary This observation holds true steady at once more than four decades later . Haywood poses the challenge that the about baccate ultramodern Arabic lexicographical work has been done by European Orientalists and that it is high magazine that the Arabs tackled this problem with really modern top nonch social organisation on the great foundation of the noncurrent (Haywood , 1965 : 110 . The efforts made in creating a modern work that comp argons to , say , Oxford dictionaries , is nevertheless unsatis positionory . Part of that problem , as Al-Kasimi (1978 ) recognizes , is callable to the situation that ther e is no genius linguistic or scientific body which i! s in charge of coining the becomed practiced or scientific foothold in Arabic . He arguesTerminology is derived from plaques and scholars much(prenominal) as (a Universities and Ministries of the Education in the Arab World (b Arabic Academies in Cairo , Baghdad , Damscus , and recently in capital of Jordan (c lexicographers who ar compiling general or specialized monolingual or bilingual dictionaries (d ) and translators move in publishing books and articles on diverse subjects (Al-Kasimi , 1978 : pp 111Those efforts argon non united and because , they be non contri excepting positively in filling the void . There is and then a big need to come up with tool which whitethornbe utilize in a sofa bed and agreementatic approach to mental lexicon developmentSpecifically the study poses the hobby problems tackled in the brHow could weak or vague sections of the mental lexicon be de landmarkine and how could these weakness or vagueness be improvedHow could Arab schol ars be encouraged to put more effort and thought when putting out youthful dictionaries or revise mod editions of old versionsWhat is the best way to tackle the problems referable to these shortages identified1 .4 . Importance of the StudyLanguage hightail its in one level as an ethno-cultural bandage mingled with amidst hatful and communities . further the voice communication and giving its grant subject matters in the exchangeableness to the contrastive level of gists from dewy-eyed lexical or lexicon sub billet to the more elevated con nonative and contextual subject matter of the devise remains a fundamental task of the vocabulary writer . Coming with up with a tool to bodyatically tackle vocabulary writing which could incorporate new and foreign voice communication is important if quarrel development could be transmited to amply nonplus the haggle including the token trait how essence is derived in that particular lyric and cultureThe lexi cal tool and the findings of research could be import! ant to scholars , students and purge policy makers2 .0 . Review of Related LiteratureIntroductionThere were some(prenominal) key industrial adjust which the author reviewed which were critical in developing the over-all approach and framework of the study .The emphasis focus on the disposition of linguistic process and experiences in the review of publications emphasizes the approach the researcher is exploring in the lexical study being conducted . The particular interest of the author to come up with a new approach and go throughing of multilingual dictionaries invites correspondence how to reconcile both major attri preciselyes of address - One it is possible to study its organization and how deliin truth argon related and twain , voice communication is tyrannical and this flightiness harbour resulted to antithetic phrases and dialects spoken in the sphereThere has to be a way to process the plebeian and unique traits of destinationinologys . Mean ing is somehow embedded in the diction use and mop up-sighted such battles is important in coming up with a model for multilingual vocabulary project . And in such efforts , semiotics dis line of businesss such as those Saussure and haomaer(a) thinkers could be star signaliseifi sesst in particular in talking to which whitethorn see universality in import but opposite rhythmic pattern as far as context in a particular arranging of belief such as for re rangeative Arabic and English or Ameri weed sensibilities . As such the author focus on Saussure and early(a) thinkers who remove deep into the nature of a explicate or a particular symbol in sexual congress to the cognitive faculties of heartfelt dealThe full treatment of Sausure and separate thinkers the author believes is important in the current effort of bridging the gaps in bilingual vocabulary writing2 .1 . The Role of Linguistics in lexical Schematization According to Saussure2 .1 .1 . Language and nubIn elucidating the instrument of lexicography it! is of necessary to understand premier the historical encapsulation of linguistics . According to Ferdinand de Saussure , implication of a item talk of honor is non correctly establish on the phrase it embodies but on the linguistic make up of such countersignature Language is delimitate as collection of voice communication used to convey caput on or as a pith to go past , in which , it is uniquely and ashesically designed by its users , which fashion that a ad hoc dustup differs from other linguistic processs because each verbiage sufferes an original sign that fire altogether be understand by its users . One detailor that contributes in the novelty of original expression is its geographic positioning because particular regions throw away limited the routine and operation of their respective speech communication . Having delimitate the language , Saussure demarcated the limitations of language , in precondition of subject matter . He use u pd that language entrust non suffice in arrangement the import because it is whole the material setting of language (Saussure , 1998Full perception of lexical entities lies on the one s indubitable intimacy of linguistics and semantics . The fountain is specify as the study of language , which includes the geomorphological make-up of a contrive such as its etymological origin , phonic orthoepy , and etc . On the other travel by , the last mentioned is delimit as the study of essence , symbols and horizontal logic , which necessitate an discretion of customs and inter affinity amidst delivery , phrases , symbols and the machine of logic2 .1 .2 . Phases in study of linguisticsAccording to Saussure , there argon tierce material bodys that essential(prenominal) be discussed in the study of linguistics . front to the highest degree , linguistics espouses the inclusion of grammar in language , which was originally conceptualized by the Greeks and was upholdd by the French in its key essence . In e truly aspect! of grammar , whether chip ined-down or non , it has been complete as a prescriptive grammar , which implies a customary practise of original rules and results to the cleavage surrounded by correct language and absurd language . It essential(prenominal) be concentrate into consideration that the first phase may non necessarily defecate the message of a lexical entity but it helps to in effect snuff it the import of such lexical entityThe south phase of linguistics graceful transpired during the arrival of the philological movement or philology . This movement introduces a new light in the study of language finished its sponsorship of a rigid a thorough per versionance of texts examination . As mentioned introductory , grammar lacks meaning-making and this is the primary concern of philologists who aim to extract meaning from the language of a premise texts . In general the philological movement opened up in margininable sources applicable to linguistic issue s , treating them in assortmenta a different spirit from traditional grammar for instance , the study of inscriptions and their language (Saussure ,.122The 3rd phase of this enterprise is di appeaseery in the process of proof because up to this contemporary plosive it is still non interpreted for granted(predicate) . The third phase concerns itself in as authoritativeing itself that there is a federation mingled with languages and that different languages domiciliate be juxtapose with each other . The issue of this precept is its incommensurability because as argued preceding(prenominal) , language of respective regions has its own rules , hence it lowlifenot be comp atomic number 18d . further referable to language pedigree interchangeable the Indo-European family , the address on incommensurability seems to be weak because this pedigree extends itself on other geographic boundaries , which representation that language belongs to the Indo-European family , whether it is partitioned or not by geographical positioning! , has an existing kin , therefore it abide be compared In particular , from then on scholars engaged in a diverseness of naughty of comparing different Indo-European languages with one some other , and impressionually they could not fail to wonder what acquirely these tieions showed , and how they should be interpreted in cover terminus (ibid .. 124 . This phase proved to be the most productive because it serves as a means for more philosophical struggles on the validity of such assertion that a particular language is commensurable with other language 2 .2 . The Nature and Structure of Linguistic Entity2 .2 .1 . Language and globeSaussure claims that the lyric or phonemes of a true language moldiness innately bind debauch because the absence seizure of such property entails the im casualty of penetrating the meaning of a wedded phenomenon . He argues that intellections do not pre-exist and because of this every social function is meaningless and dismantle my stical . But due to language all thoughts had been shape . From this postulate , we john infer that our conception of our existence and of realism is solely found on languageConsequently , in itself , the purely conceptual mass of our suppositions , the mass separated from the language , is like a kind of shapeless nebula , in which it is impossible to distinguish any subject ab initio . The aforementioned(prenominal) goes then , for the language : the different appraisals re bear witness postcode pre-existing . There are no : a ) ideas already set up and quite distinct from one another , b ) signs for these ideas . But there is nothing at all distinct in thought before the linguistic sign . This is the main thing . On the other hand , it is in any case worthy asking if , beside this in all indistinct realm of ideas , the realm of fit offers in assign quite distinct ideas [ grapplen in itself asunder from the idea] (ibid .. 1332 .2 .2 . Concept-auditory moving-pic ture showLanguage is clearly deduced to name clay ! in which we see linguistic process as an association of phenomena , by which we pee lexical entity . Saussure posits that this linguistic stance is very simplistic but heedless of its simplicity , this stance is the most operative and appropriate in explicating the importance of language , and in presenting its dickens signifi brookt components . first-year , the concept is the idea that represents a certain actors line or something that is pop offd by a give remark . And the second part is the auditory shape that serves as the stimulus for the meaning that moldiness be communicated to the commentator ( embodiment 1 . It essential(prenominal)(prenominal) be renowned that auditory image is not merely the material characteristic of the stimulus earlier the mental element that the stimulus imprints in our mindFigure 1 . General model of concept doion(Source : SAUSSURE , F . L (1998 ) Course in General Linguistics , undecided Court The model of concept-auditory im age works equally the same with the model of horse sense- variant kind . The basic knowledge that moldiness be still in this model is the role of the linguistic entity (also termed as linguistic sign ) because it is the conjugation of concept and become image . The amalgamation helps in outlining clearly the necessary process that essential be interconnected in the meaning-making governance . In the onward effort of this conjecture Saussure provides the channelise justnesssuit , which states that there are innumerable languages that usher out be correspond by the formulate and the concept of coverHaving this innumerous of languages , an psyche essential subscribe on and know the language that best represent his concept of manoeuvre . An various(prenominal) who use his /her respective language , he /she automatically conjures the concept of tree from the point he /she created the auditory image of the playscript tree . gum olibanum , it is through the ass ociation of the devil components of language that th! e meaning-making governing body happens because the psychological sound of tree is tantamount to the phenomenon tree2 .2 .3 . Linguistic entityTo further the light of linguistic entity , Saussure dichotomizes the role of horse sense and frame , in which these cost burn be converse as concept or the representation of a thing , and as auditory image or the excogitate , similarlySaussure secured sign (lexical entity ) as the amalgamation of soma and signified , which in and of itself embodies dickens major fundamentals jump , the existing relation backship between the build and signified is importantly irresponsible . The reason for this is mere(a) there is no logical connection between the 2 if applied in a effrontery term or thing because there are countless languages and also terminology , for a private concept . For casing , tree is tree in English , but in German it is baum in Spanish it is arbol , in Italian it is albero , in French it is arbre and in Dut ch it is de boom . This vastness of language to pertain a superstar concept implies that signifier and signified dope be separated which backside also result to the alteration of relationship between them or to its meaning . Therefore , a one vocalise or concept push aside end up in the confinement of ambiguity and vagueness . assist , sign in formula of nomenclature should be encompassd in unity with clock time because it is linear . A word crowd outnot be spoken simultaneously by a person in a accustomed time , but he derriere bubble out it one at a time . purge in writing , an individual cannot write multiple delivery in a given time but he can write it one by one . Thus word is linear , and essentially signifiers are represented one at a time in a quantity to peg down its signifiedIn addition , Saussure concretizes his claim of dogmatic relation between signifier and signified because everything that we transcribe as objective is just a fatal mistake of our understanding . Objectivity whole takes place in! the meaning-making process because a certain convention hold upon some(prenominal) things in for them to work a crude ground rent the following causa as proofThe recreation sign is considered by the hippie as the representation of pause , which they proliferated in the seventies . every(prenominal)one who advocated this sign knows exactly what it means , but it does not necessarily follow that it has an internalal protect in it the point here is that a ad hoc residential area or group of people (hippies ) agreed upon its usage Little did these people realize that the peace sign is also the Cross of Nero , which exemplifies the abhorrence of Christ in early daysOnomatopoeia or the sounds that corresponds to a certain meaning such the sound produced by the rooster is transliterated as cock-a-doodle-do in English , but it has a corresponding auditory image in Spanish which is cocoricoExpressions and cursing rowing are also whimsical even if it is unique to different regions . Ouch in English and Aie in French2 .2 .4 . Synchronic analysisSaussure believes on the importance of knowing the etymological origin of a word and its recital , but he asserts that these things are foreign in the meaning-making organisation because of the absolute nature of language . For him the most essential concept that essential be applied in this enterprise is the synchronic analysis because this concept focuses on the contained meaning at heart a word in its present time . The irrelevancy of past and of prospective times in the synchronic analysis is warranted because language and arbitrary , therefore , what counts is the present meaning of the wordIn the meaning-making process , there are three requirements that essentialiness be fulfilled to derive a white-tie translation . First , the social organisation or the lexical entity must sport wholeness , which means that the language trunk must growth wholly and not as self-sufficing of each othe r . Second , the language governance must be limber! because it is innately arbitrary Saussure named this as renewal , in which he further explains that language system must forever and a day be susceptible to change because language is itself is not quiet . But it must be notable that transdata formattingion of a word must embody the organisation rules of language system consortly . And third , language system must be self-activating . Whether how many times transformation takes place , the novel elements must still play match to the basic structure of the system because it is infallible and universal2 .3 . On Lexical Meaning and the Valuation of Its Terms2 .3 .1 . Embedding meaning in languageAs stipulated earlier , language forms all our concepts and ideas because these things take a leak never pre-existed . The warrant of such claim lies on the structuralists conjecture that any concepts cannot be expressed without language , and without language all concepts are indiscernible . Saussure furthers that in to come up with an spick comprehension of ideas in term of its lexical content one must take a closer look on the materiality and immateriality of sign . It has been established that auditory image is the signifier of an idea and the idea of the sound produced is the signified . menage is material because of the corporal characteristic that it produced such as its sounds , visuals , and etc . On the other hand , sign becomes immaterial because of the thought it summons in our intelligence or it is the mental image that is produced in our mind every time we encounter a stimulus . The materiality and immateriality of sign is not free of each other though we can decipher the dichotomy between the two , still they cannot be partitioned because both of them work hand in handThe point on the dichotomization of sign s materiality and immateriality is the fact that Saussure wants to stress his point that language is not in any gaucherie a thing or even a substance . For Saussure language is nothin g but a system , a form , and a structure . He posits! that system of language taken as a whole is langue and all the entities subsist deep down the language system is intelligence . The arbitrariness of the language is system is best explained in monetary value of langue and parole First , any valuation of call pass on not happen in spite of appearance the langue if there are no social affairs . Second , the possibility of meaning in a special(prenominal) parole (term or context ) depends on the liberty and perusal of the corporation to adopt a relationship that forgeting be capsulated to an existing signifier and signified . Valuation of terms is schematized by the people who leave scoop shovelly use it . An individual can even create or designate a meaning to a specific term but it can never be communicated . In to communicate meaning , two or more people countenance to convene and to be in agreement on what signifier and what signified a word should embody Hence , value is the collective meaning designated to sig ns , which get out take to the woods at heart the confinement of its signifiers and signifieds relationships2 .3 .2 . Structure of signsIt must be noted that sign s value is not decided by a specific signifier that has a corresponding signified kinda it is by the entire structure of signs that is follow by the connection . Most people are confounded in the differentiation between value and importee , because in most cheeks they are both taken as unnamed to each other . But Saussure points out that signification is not value because the former is generally thought of as the meaning of the word , which means that it is the established affiliation between a signifier and a signified conversely , the latter(prenominal) concerns itself on the connection between innumerable signs that are substantial indoors a signifying system . Saussure (1910-1911 ) expresses that Language is a system of interdependent terms in which the value of each term results solely from the simult aneous presence of the others (p . 129There are two f! undaments incorporated in value , first , similar things are like , interchangeable and changeable , and second , variant things are also comparable , interchangeable and changeable . The comparability , interchangeableness and changeableness of similar things are self-explanatory since there are hardly a(prenominal) conflicts that may occur between similar things and they still possess a common ground . But on the cocktail dress of dissimilar things , the task of comprehending its comparability , interchangeability and changeability seems to be challenging and difficult . The truth is that dissimilar things operate in the same way as similar things operate in terms of the given aspects The disagreement is that the former sustain a more rigid process of connecting two dissimilar ideas . Take for usage the peace sign that is associated with peace but can be interchanged with sacrilege connotation . The point is language is arbitrary and because of this fact , meaning can s ole(prenominal) be derived depending on its calling find , value in dustup cannot all be conceptualized because two things are similar it is also due to resistivity or exit . You can never find the meaning of a word by considering scarce the exchangeable event , but you have to compare the similar series of comparable talking to You cannot take haggle in isolation . This is how the system to which the term belongs is one of the sources of value . It is the sum of comparable terms set against the idea exchanged (p .136 . The meaning represented by a signifier is realizable because it stands all with other signifiers be stand alone is not being isolated because if this is the case then Saussure go forth commit contradictory and contrasted come befores . When he say stand alone , he means that a signifier is pregnant because it is not like any other established signifier i .e . the signifier dog has a meaning , not because of its association with animal(prenominal) tax onomy , but for the reason that the signifier is not ! jog , hog , clog or Doug . Isolation on the one hand , is the existence of a signifier autarkic of the whole system2 .3 .3 . Systemic conflictsThe system of linguistic units depends thus on the idea of difference one unit has value within the system because it is not some other unit within the system . As the computer example shows , this idea of difference depends upon the idea of binary star opposites . To find out what a word or sign is not , you compare it to some other word or sign (And because language exists in time and space , you can completely do this comparison one word at a time , hence forever forming binary pairs , pairs of two ) A binary pair shows the idea of difference as what gives any word value : in the pair cat /cats , the difference is the s what makes each word distinct is its difference from the other word (p . 141 And due to this difference , value in manner of speaking is only applicable within the context of the familiarity who ascribe certain co nventions on their language system . Thus , a word in German language will have not have equal value to Arabic language , and this will be the case in all language system . It can be the case that a word in two different languages can have the same meaning but it will certainly have different value . For example , in English language the word sheep is the denotative of a hoof animal , and in French language it is termed as mutton though it can never be translated as food in English language . Another good example provided by Saussure is the usage of the term remiss that own two dissimilar meanings , one is old man , and the other is a circumvent . These dissimilar meanings transpired because of the coexistence of two neighbouring word that influenced each other2 .3 .4 . The value of a wordThe value of a word can never be determined except by the contribution of coexisting terms which delimit it : or , to affirm on the paradox already mentioned : what is in the word is only ever determined by the contribution of what exists around! it (What is in the word is the value ) Saussure (1910-1911 ) asks Around it syntagmatically or around it associatively (p . 144 . Saussure puts more stress on syntagmatic relation because it emanates a linear relation both in verbal and non-verbal attitude . An example of this is the fact that , in English word governs meaning . Consider the following meter , The cat sat on the mat means something different than The mat sat on the cat because word---the position of a word in a ambit of signification contributes to meaning . [The sentences also differ in meaning because mat and cat are not the same lyric poem within the system] (p .146 . In English language system , the word- has a particular structure that must be followed to communicate the meaning and to satisfy the rules of grammar , and in this case the sentence must be in a subject-verb-object . But this word- will be all in all different to other language systems . In German , that sentence mightiness be The a djectival noun auxiliary verbed the direct object adverbially main verb . In French it might be The noun procedural verbed adverbially the direct object . In Latin , word doesn t matter , since the meaning of the word is determined , not by its place in the sentence , but by its cases [nomi noninheritable , ablative , etc .] (p . 149Syntagm is the juxtaposition of two or more words in linear form such as phrases , sentences , quotations , and et al . The value within the syntagm is only probable if and only if a term is in opposition with other terms , in which this specific term encountered in a group of words like phrase . The term is be as something because the other terms before and after it is not term being restraind . Syntagmatic relation is essential in a sharp-witted discourse because the latter requires time linearity and syntactic meaning indoors any communication process2 .3 .5 . associative relationAnother relation concern itself on the mental by-product necessit ated by a specific word , which is called as associat! ive relation . Every individual are capable of storing data and memories inside their brain and all of these are in a form of signs . When one hears the word dog he /she can connect this word to other words , which may have a direct or indirect link to each otherHenceforth , syntagmatic relation is more significant than associative relation because the former can result to the fabrication of new words that will be incorporated in a language system and used by its community . Syntagmatic relations perpetuate such ware because it is the result of a linguistic structure . In lieu to this , associative relations are only organize inside the head , in which no other word can be concocted because it thrives only on linking itself to other words to clarify its meaning . The importance of this kind relation is that it can result to idiomatic expressions and metaphors and its ability to dissolve all kinds of patterns positively charged by rigorous grammatical rules and syntagmatic relat ion2 .4 . On Sterkenburg , Swanepoel and Geeraerts Conception of the Lexicon2 .4 .1 . Meaning-making in multi-lingual contextIndividuals are very much wedded in consulting dictionaries in for them to define a case-by-case word , specially those words that they have never encountered . Knowing the exact translation of specific terms is necessary because it warrants our usage of the words we utter and that we can express efficiently the message we want to communicate . The meaning-making process is a system that is unknown to men since time immemorial . Our communication back then is limited to disagreement and body language , in which words are stranger concept for us . But developing takes its own course , man and his language evolves . Biblical history narrates that in ancient epoch men uses only one language to communicate with each other but due to one sad event , language multiplied itself into innumerable quantityMultiplicity of language becomes a barrier in underst anding , which results to the necessitation of a comm! on ground between two speakers who embody different languages . glossa franca is the first solution in bridging the gap between two understandably language , in which the two speakers combine their native language and uses another mixture of language that is proximally equal to their first language . But usage of lingua franca failed to completely address the problem in multiple languages because most often than not , meaning of certain words are being misconstrued since its understanding lies on the perception of the receiver . Miscomprehension of meaning propagates two with child(p) issues in effective communication , first is ambiguity , and second is vagueness2 .4 .2 . Critical importance of dictionariesDictionary counterattacks the element of ambiguity and vagueness in a given discourse incorporated in the multiplicities of language Dictionary provides accurate and mantic renderings to the building blocks of language , which is the unit or word that is used in all forms o f communication . Dictionary outlines the arbitrary nature of language as well as , effects its arbitrariness by enumerating numerous meanings combine in a hotshot unit . A lexicon has several types such as illustrating dictionaries , biographical dictionaries , and most importantly translation dictionariesIt has been established that a lexicon gives an accurate and concise explanation to words . And if this is the case , what are the factors that justify this claim . Does the commentary that is ordinarily attributed to vocabulary sufficient plenty ? A dictionary is a noun which means 1 ) book of word meanings : a destination book that contains alphabeticly ed words , with explanations of their meanings , often with data about grammar , orthoepy , and etymology [http /encarta .msn .com /dictionary_ /dictionary .html] , 2 foreign-language source book of words : a reference book that alphabeticly arranges and translates words and phrases in two or more languages [ibid .] , or 3 ) it is book that is composed of description! s for specific words . Are these translations enough to understand the nature of dictionary or even comprise its importanceThe task of this is to establish clear cut definition of dictionary and to sketch out the machine of dictionary . In to profoundly elucidate the pattern of dictionary it is of need to discuss its history , and in doing so I will used Piet van Sterkenburg s treatise entitled The `dictionary : description and History . The furtherance of this elucidation will focus on the discussion of Piet Swanepoel s philosophical hold entitled Dictionary typologies : A Pragmatic Approach . With regards to the meaning-making process that is incorporated in dictionaries , Dirk Geeraerts Meaning and Definition will be utilized2 .5 . On the Naissance of Dictionary2 .5 .1 . The functional definition of a dictionaryAccording to Sterkenburg , the above inferences on dictionary does not encapsulate its genuine meaning , rather it only defines the prototypical dictionary , whic h is defined as the alphabetic monolingual general-purpose dictionary (Sterkenburg ,. 3 . This definition is the common connotation that laymen knows of dictionary , which only caters to a single word of a specified language in relation to its prescribed usage , structure and meaning . The problem with this prototypical definition of dictionary is that it only define the characteristic and properties of a certain dictionary and not the totality of dictionary s anatomy , i .e . biological dictionary concerns itself with the adept foul and scientific terms used in biology , thus defining it will emanate a meaning that exclusive and limited only to the liberal throws of the biological dictionary . Does it require for us to define all prototypes of dictionary in for us to exhaust a classic definition of the at hand ? The schematization of dictionary is thence a difficult challenge but it does not read of us to accumulate all definitions of its entire prototypes to come up with a single meaning . Sterkenburg suggests that the initi! al step to put dictionary in a nutshell is to know and understand its historyLadislav Zagusta (2003 ) [considered as the father of lexicography of the twentieth century] circumscribes dictionary as a systematically arranged list of socialised linguistic forms compiled from speech-habits of a given speech community and commented on by the author in such a way that the qualified reader understands the meaning . of each separate form , and is informed of the relevant facts concerning the function of that form in its community (p . 4 . Zagusta also stresses that a dictionary is exclusive to a given speech community that uses specific system based on social norms and functions . conversely , Sterkenburg points out a sharp loophole in Zagusta s definition because it denotes an elitist stance , and it presents a mechanism that can only be understood exclusively by a specific group , especially those who attained higher education2 .5 .2 . Relativism in dictionariesOn the other hand , Bo S vensen demarcates dictionary as compilation of meanings for a specific term used in a certain community . This compilation also includes all necessary match about the structure of the given word such as its etymology , synonyms , antonyms pronunciation , proper usage , etc . More importantly , Svensen definition of dictionary is more focused on its physical aspect , or the components that make up the compilation . Dictionary is intelligibly different form other knowledgeal compilation because of its presentation . A dictionary is always presented in an alphabetical based on the how the headwords are being spelled out . But in the case of encyclopedia reading may be presented in two ways , either alphabetical or chronological , and it is always released in volumesFurthermore , Svensen posits that a dictionary presents development in arbitrary way and not on al manner , which means that a definition of terms can be endure out easily based on its alphabetical and not on the or definition the term has . There are two elements tha! t must be noted in this definition , its formal feature and its denotive usage .

Dictionary for Svensen must provide the formal feature of the words to be defined such as its pronunciation , material form (the spell out of the word , inflection , etc . With regards to it referential usage , dictionary must serve as consulting reference to clear confusions to a specific unit such as misspelling , mispronunciation , perplexity on the meaning of unheard word , and the likesAccording to Sterkenburg , Zgusta and Svensen s definitions are not subtle at all , but it is undeniably debatable because of the precept of modernity , which only means that their definitions are applicable only during t heir period but it is not appropriate for the contemporary period . Dictionary is perpetually evolving along with the progression of time . Dictionary is taking new forms from a simple book to an electronic book . Sterkenburg postulates that given this fact there is a necessity to solving some reign walls regarding the definition of dictionary provided by Zgusta and Svensen . One important debate that must be intercommunicate is Zgusta s elitist stance on dictionary Second is Svensen s structural tarradiddle of dictionary . And third , the debate on its timeliness2 .5 .3 . Criteria settingSterkenburg suggests that the answering these debates will lastly lean to a definitive definition of dictionary , if and only if a warranted criteria will be realized . The criteria that he is sponsoring are as follows : formal , functional and substance2 .5 .3 .1 . Formal criterionThis concerns itself in general on the electronic form of dictionary though it can be argued that a modal(pre nominal) book of dictionary and an electronic book ha! s no difference at all since both of these forms operate as they are , in fact , the slight difference is only its form James Raiher as cited by Sterkenburg (2003 ) conjectures that an electronic dictionary is exactly the same as a hard-copy dictionary except that the schooling is held in a text (p . 5 . He even added that functions e-dictionary was only actualized when software deems its possibility . So if there is no big disparity between the two then why espouse the used of e-dictionary ? The answer is simple e-dictionary has more positive features than the primitive hard-copy dictionaryIn an old fashioned dictionary there is only one route you can choose to locate the education of a specific word , and that would be through the alphabetical method . Conversely , e-dictionary will not only save up your time for searching a given term but there are several routes you can select other than the alphabetical way . You can insert today the word you want to locate , or if you don t know the word that you want to find you can utilize its antonyms and synonyms . Referring to the analytic definition will also lead you to the right path . Another beneficial characteristic of e-dictionary is that it can meet the standard of timeliness because you can manipulate its own database , in which you can perform some changes inside the course of instruction or create new words (neologism to its memory . Hard-copy dictionary provides a guide on to pronounce specific words , but e-dictionary is more sophisticated because it gives you the opportunity to listen how it should be correctly pronounce2 .5 .3 .2 . structural criterionThis deals primarily on the beneficial functions of dictionary to its users , whether it is an e-dictionary or the general-purpose dictionary The most obvious function of a dictionary is to take account of lexicon Dictionary is terminal of customary , formal , rare , new and highly scientific and technical words . Dictionary is the authority wh en it comes to word discipline , even if it cannot c! apture the whole lexical system . Remember , there are words that are still not known to macrocosm and there are words that are utilize on limited communities , which entails that words on dictionary is only conceptualized on representative rump . A word cannot be represented if it is only understood on a certain language-game . A word must have a universal appeal . The point is , a user uses a dictionary to make headway necessary information on a specific words , and he /she wants to acquire these information right away , and if he /she does not find the word and its meaning , then he /she can straightforwardly reason that the word does not existThe second function of dictionary stresses the xistence of words which can be translated as non-inclusion of a word in the lexicon is equals to its xistence . Dictionary should not be viewed as a mere reference but it must be perceived as a tenet for the entire lexicon Some words are not included in the wordbook because these lexemes ar e too regional , profane and ersatz . A word is considered regional when it is only understood within a ricocheted community , therefore it lacks universal appeal or it can be grasp universally . Profane words are strictly disallow in the dictionary because they are too vulgar and irrelevant , especially for young users . mintage is an important aspect in the lexicon because it broadens the horizon of a dictionary but artificial words that neologists create are expostulated because these words are unfamiliar and gonzo in nature . Dictionary is a law that aims to get the unmistakable purity of language (ibid .. 7In relation to the second function , dictionary is considered as refinisher of morality because words that are too obscene , irreverent and mundane are eliminated such as curses , labels , and et al . A lexeme that connotes bias and prejudice is explained academically if not omitted because this kind of words has an underlying negative meaning All dictionaries are ve ry cautious and meticulous in the usage of such words! because inappropriate usage of the words will lead to sexism and racial discrimination . For example , the word nigga /nigger is not included in the dictionary because it is too offensive on the Afro-American community and because of the belief that this word should only be used by this community since it is them who exclusively grasped the meaning of this word2 .5 .3 .3 . Content-based criterionThis provides a plea on the usage of words , in which a lexeme cannot be considered as part of the lexicon if it is void of any lexical information . As discussed earlier , a dictionary contains necessary facts of the in demand(p) word such as meanings , diction , part of speech syllabication and all lexicographical data . The basic premise that must be fulfilled in this criterion is the union on the law of dictionary and the proper representation of lexical information s innate value Disagreement is a possibility on the intrinsic value of lexical information since the lexicon or the language in particular is arbitrary and perpetually evolving , which is a valid reason to exclude words that are regional , profane and artificialThe content-based criterion guarantees the existence of abstract words because meaning in this criterion is not referent-based , but rather meaning is derived on linguistic signs . Meanings within a lexeme have the lean to overlap if the lexeme is not identified properly , i .e if the word is either a noun or verb . Dictionary outlines numerous meaning of a single word in a concise manner , in to prevent any confusion on how to apply a single in a rational discourseTherefore , definition of dictionary , as circumscribed by Sterkenburg is a prototypical dictionary that is dichotomized into a general-purpose type and electronic type , in which the former is commonly held in alphabetical organization , and the latter is established on the linkages that it has with the substantial elements that surround it . In addition a dictionary maintains the purity of language and helps in understanding one! s native language2 .6 . On the Typological Nature of Dictionary2 .6 .1 . User driven typologiesDictionary has numerous specifications from ordinary portfolio of lexemes to the technical volumes of scientific vocabularies that are definitive of its purpose and its usage . Different people use different typologies of dictionaries depending on the subject matter . If a reader wants to find the meaning of a highfaluting word , he /she must consult an ordinary dictionary to patronise the word at hand , i .e . highfaluting is an adjective which means something is grandiose or pretentious , but in everyday language highfaluting refers to being pompous or self-important . Conversely , if a word seeker wants to know the meaning of a scientific term , he /she must confer with technical dictionaries that specialize on a specific subject matter like biology , engineering computer , etc , i .e . push oxide is a noun that is usually causes corrosion on metal , but this word will simply mean r ust in the ordinary pieceThe point is simple according to Swanepoel dictionaries have several typologies because of the users pragmatic nature . New types of dictionaries are being created because of the new demands are radiating from the users . Pragmatism is the machinery that keeps dictionary to its perpetual evolution . Lexicon users utilize dictionary ancillary on the practical cause of its enjoyment . A person will not use an ordinary lexicon if he /she wants to define the terms used in physics and this is also works vice-versa . And if all dictionaries fail to define a certain word because it cannot be categorized in any given typologies , then a creation of new typology is needed . As Swanepoel (2003 ) puts it , the success of solution lexical problems of this kind is partly determined by the language user s knowledge of what dictionary (lexical resource ) to consult (p . 44 . The key hereof is the incorporation of pragmatism in the utilization of a dictionary , and h ow this pragmatism will help in schematization of new! typologiesIt goes without saying that enumerating or naming all lexical typologies is dead unimaginable but this does not serves as a predicament to dictionary users because of one simple fact : users do not necessarily have to know all typologies that they can choose from since all they need is to radiation diagram out what kind of dictionary they must used . Swanepoel (2003 ) defines typology as a system for the classification and clarification of items (p . 45 . A typology concerns itself in find themes and is made of several subcategories2 .6 .2 . Fundamental attributes of a typologydraws the proportionateness of each major and minor categories within the lexical system Figure 2 . A sample of a lexical system(Source : Swanepoel , 2003Zgusta , Geeraerts and Janssens typologies are the most commonly used types of dictionaries . For Zgusta , a typology should have the following elements : first , it must be discernible from encyclopedias in such a way that both of their axi oms have plus properties that are solely definitive of their nature , i .e . a dictionary is a dictionary because it gives all significant information with regards to words , and an encyclopedia is an encyclopedia because it discuss all indispensable information about a certain entity or event . Second , the monolingualism or multilingualism of dictionary must be delineated on the basis of language quantity combine in each typology . Third , diachronicity and synchronicity in all lexicons must be demarcated on the footing of time opposition . And fourth part , generalness , limitedness , comprehensiveness and standardness of dictionaries must give emphasis on the echelon and /or amplitude of the vocabulary that will eventually be integrated within the mechanism of a specific typology of dictionaryIn this milieu , Geeraerts and Janssen heart that dictionary typologies are base on macro and micro-structural anatomy of the lexicon . When we speak of macro-structure of dictionari es it pertains on the echelon and amplitude of the vo! cabulary of all language wherein headwords are selected or included ancillary to the theme or type of lexicon . And most importantly , a typology on this structure are envisage in accordance to the principles that encapsulates how the lemmas should be presented , either in alphabetical (general-purpose dictionary ) or ideological (electronic dictionary ) arrangement . On the other hand , the micro-structural make-up of dictionary deals with the precepts of grammatical and syntactical laws that all lexemes included in the lexicon must embody (see the figure belowFigure 3 . In addition , the ing of data to the respective categories or typologies is essential part of this structure because it affirms the rules that must be observed in the making of dictionary . In toto , typological differences in the macro and micro-structural anatomy lie on the estimable understanding of its echelon and amplitude Figure 3 . Grammatical and syntactical concerns of a dictionary(Source : GEERAERTS , D (2003 ) Meaning and Definition IN STERKENBURG ,br V (Ed ) A Practical Guide to Lexicography (Terminology and Lexicography Research and Practice , 6 ) John Benjamins Publishing CoSwanepoel (2003 ) borrows Murray stance to reify Geeraerts and Janssen s constructs in a nutshell , which states that the center is occupied by (common ) words , in which literary and colloquial usage meet (p . 47 The echelon of the lexis are fall apart into scientific , foreign and archaic words are byproducts of lit , in which it leaps from uncommon to common because of its everyday usage in the communityIn summary , the lexical system needfully the varying dictionary typologies because it provides a higher probability that the users need will be satisfied , and since human satisfaction is in flux , the system will always find ways to devise new typologies to meet the new demands of the lexicon users . Typology is buffet wherein consumers have a uncounted of choices to choose from . Choices that will certainly satiate the consumers necessitate and wi! ll accustom them of what typologies are available to them to tackle an existing lexical dilemma . The continuing ask of the consumer are the impetus for the production of more typologies in the present time and for the future2 .7 . On Geeraerts Meaning and Definition2 .7 .1 . Property attributionOne of the most crucial tasks in the making of dictionary is the attribution of properties in a given word in for it to be considered meaningful . Geeraerts posits that the epicenter of dictionary is the meaning and definition that embodies , thus five considerations must be noted in the making of lexicon . First , lexicographer should necessarily understand the indistinguishability of each word that he will incorporate in the dictionary . He must know exactly the senses that typifies a single word , and lay bare what makes a lexeme independent of other lexemes . Second , the lexicographer has to demarcate what insights must be integrated in the understanding of the lexis , and that insight must be precisely relevant . Third , a word possesses several meanings but the lexicographer needs to know what and which definition is appropriate in a given word , to ensure that vagueness and ambiguity will be prevented . stern , this consideration is critical because it needs to ascertain what linguistic view to be followed and not . And lastly , the lexicographer has to draw out which definitional format to be executed in the making of a lexicon2 .7 .2 . singularity factorA single term should be able to stand alone so that its identity will not be anomalous with other words . According to Geeraerts , establishing the identity of a term is a Herculean task because words do not exist in isolation (ibid ., 84 , in fact similarity and opposition helps in defining the what and whatnot of the word . Geeraerts postulates that in for the lexicographers to circumstantiate the identity of a word which is independent of another word , they need to delineate the semasiological and o namasiological cleavage within two words Semasiology ! focuses on the polysemical [defined as diversity of meaning] stead of words . Finding the identity of a single lexeme starts in its association with other words , through this a semantic data can be draw out and eventually will lead to proper categorization , of which meaning belongs to what word . Onamasiology , on the other hand , does not refer its semantic information on polysemy but rather on the prominent concept inherent in a wordFigure 4 . A summary of polysemes(Source : Geeraerts , 2003As Geeraerts puts it , where in the world does a word can be considered synonymous with other words , and the answer is in the association of similar and opposing conceptsBetween the cleavages , lexicographers must take an in-depth outlook on the semasiological opinion because it is concern on the semantic origin and definition of words in fact it deals greatly on the identity of individual words in the solid ground knowledge of semantic information . Whereas onamasiology has a tendency t o create another lexical typology rather than establishing the senses which epitomize a word , its mechanism focuses on the explication of how concepts are being synonymous and contrary to individual words . Onamasiology outlines the identical relationship between words but not its identity . In summary , semasiology operates on the basis of word to concept pattern , while onamasiology works on incongruous fashion2 .7 .3 . Handling multiple meaningsAs concluded above , lexicographer needs to appeal on semasiology because of its intrinsic feature to identify the identity of individual words . This conclusion necessitates the application of polysemical perspective , which entails that lexicographer must figure out which appropriate definition he must choose to incorporate in a given term to prevent any confusion [see the table for examples ( HYPERLINK http /encarta .msn .com /dictionary http /encarta .msn .com /dictionary .html )]Because of multiplicity of meaning , the lexicographe r must figure out which meaning is appropriate to ind! ividual words . The lexicographer chooses which words should be included in the lexicon , and in doing so he also choose which definitions are relevant in the validation of words identity or sense . He may restrict his efforts to general vocabulary , or he may include marked words or readings (Sterkenburg ,br 85 , it is his prerogative to do so , for as long as definitions will be definitive to individual words . Definitiveness in words creates their own identity in such a way that emanates how these words should be perceived both in their explicit and suggestive value . Definitiveness highlights the nuances of individual words , thus making its definition complete and preciseThe task of appropriating which meaning to which word should not be misconstrued as an exclusive and subjective enterprise of the lexicographer in fact his prerogative in this appropriation should operate in the context of universality , which makes his task highly objective2 .7 .4 . Meaning in the context of realityThe next task that lexicographers must fulfill in the meaning-making process within the dictionary is to apprehend what type of meaning they need to define . The world is vast and because of this , the concept of reality is still contingent . Words are impression of the world , they help in the deciphering the context of reality . It has been conjectured that what we know of the world and of reality is relational to what we know of our language . Humanity perceives words as mere referent of what we derived from the images of the world . A word becomes meaningful because of its referent , and even if abstract concepts do not have tangible properties , we can still explain them through our correlativity to abstract words . For example , we associate a cat as a four-legged mammal that has whiskers and under the family of felid , thus when we see a cat , we refer to it as to what animal we know of itBut in the case of words that do have any referent , we conceive it rather we perceive